This project seeks to determine how forest harvest and regenerative

practices can best maintain biotic communities, spatial patterns of structure and ecosystem integrity, compared with mixed-wood landscapes originating through natural disturbances (EMEND, 2014). In another landmark project, the Eco-Gene model (Degen et al., 1996) was used to elucidate the long-term consequences of logging and forest fragmentation in seven Amazonian timber species in the Dendrogene initiative, which incorporated data on genetic structure and gene flow collected before and after logging had taken place (e.g., Sebbenn et al., 2008 and Vinson et al., 2014). As Wickneswari et al. (2014) indicate, MI-773 plantations for wood production may provide corridors and habitat for flora and fauna that support the maintenance of genetic diversity, but they may also have negative effects, such as increasing Z-VAD-FMK in vitro the pest and disease load. In addition, gene flow from alien (exotic or ‘locally exotic’, cf. Barbour et al., 2008) provenances may through hybridisation and introgression eventually swamp locally adapted genotypes in natural forests, if plantation areas are large (Fady et al., 2010; see also Thomas et al., 2014, this special issue). Such introgression may, however, not be universally bad, as indicated by Alfaro et al. (2014,

this special issue); it is sometimes advocated as a means to generate new evolutionary potential to respond to climate change and other adaptive challenges. Why do so many restoration efforts fail? Undoubtedly there are many reasons, but one that has been under-appreciated is a

persistent lack of attention to matching species and seed source to the planting site (Bozzano et al., 2014). In the fifth review of this special issue, Thomas et al. (2014) address this topic by focusing on important genetic considerations in ecosystem restoration programmes based on native tree species. The scale of importance of such work is indicated by the revised Strategic Plan of the Convention on Biological tuclazepam Diversity for 2011–2020, one aim of which is to restore 15% of degraded ecosystems globally by the end of the current decade (ABT, 2014). Since it is estimated that two billion hectares of land could benefit from restoration, this would imply successful restoration efforts on an area of 300 million hectares in the next six years. While currently applied measures of success are often not informative for determining the long-term sustainability of restored ecosystems, as noted by Thomas et al. (2014), many current restoration projects fail to reach their objectives by any measure (Cao et al., 2011 and Wuethrich, 2007). Although the reasons for failure are sometimes complex (as illustrated by examples in China; Zhai et al., 2014), inadequate attention to the genetic composition of the planting material used is a contributing factor (Bozzano et al.