A potential explanation has been suggested in models of CD8-dependent GVHD where post-mitotic, CD44lowCD62LhighSca-1highCD8+ T cells within the periphery are capable of self-renewal and the generation of new effectors

28. Furthermore, transfer of these putative “memory stem cells” is capable of inducing GVHD in secondary recipients. Similar, self-renewing antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell populations have been described in a model of anti-tumor immunity under conditions regulated by the Wnt/β-catenin pathway 29. Whether these CD8+ T cells have counterparts within the alloreactive CD4+ T-cell repertoire is not known, however. If they exist at all, one must assume that they were either not transferred to or failed to survive within antigen-free RAG−/− mice in the experiments of Mark and Warren Shlomchik and colleagues 4, 21. The adaptive immune system has evolved under selective pressure Selleck Opaganib from pathogens and, of course, has not been designed to deal with transplanted antigens. In the context of composite recall immunity involving secondary effector CTL or long-lived neutralizing antibody, there

may be a lesser requirement overall for memory CD4+ T cells 30. This may explain the gradual reductions in memory CD4+ T-cell numbers over time in the absence of antigen re-exposure. Changes in the functionality of memory CD4+ T cells may also act to limit immunopathology, for example by limiting the expansion of CD4+ T cells or the synthesis of dangerous cytokines 30. In the context of BMT, these limitations in the functions of memory CD4+ cells provide a potential “loophole” that could be exploited therapeutically Selleckchem Epigenetics Compound Library to deliver improved overall immune reconstitution without GVHD. Conflict

of interest: The authors declare no financial or commercial conflict of interest. See accompanying article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eji.201141678 “
“Department of Gene Therapy and Regenerative Medicine, The Free University of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium Division of Molecular Medicine and Gene Therapy, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Infiltration of Thymidylate synthase a neoplasm with tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) is considered an important negative prognostic factor and is functionally associated with tumor vascularization, accelerated growth, and dissemination. However, the ontogeny and differentiation pathways of TAMs are only incompletely characterized. Here, we report that intense local proliferation of fully differentiated macrophages rather than low-pace recruitment of blood-borne precursors drives TAM accumulation in a mouse model of spontaneous mammary carcinogenesis, the MMTVneu strain. TAM differentiation and expansion is regulated by CSF1, whose expression is directly controlled by STAT1 at the gene promoter level. These findings appear to be also relevant for human breast cancer, in which an interrelationship between STAT1, CSF1, and macrophage marker expression was identified.