The ET-induced alterations of intestinal barrier permit bidirectional passage of proteins, including ET, between the intestinal Selleck Anti-diabetic Compound Library lumen and the plasma compartment, as assessed using Horse Radish Peroxidase or Evans blue bound to plasma proteins ( Goldstein

et al., 2009). Thus, by altering the intestinal permeability, ET facilitates its own passage in the circulatory fluids ( Fernandez-Miyakawa and Uzal, 2003; Losada-Eaton et al., 2008). To summarize, whereas the mechanisms in which enterotoxin from C. perfringens opens tight junctions is well known (reviewed by Berkes et al., 2003; McClane et al., 2006; Popoff, 2011b), the way in which ET toxin modulates the tight junctions remains unclear. Following haematogenous BIRB 796 research buy dissemination, ET reaches central nervous system. The second step is the passage of ET through the blood–brain barrier. The latter consists of endothelial cells stitched together by tight junctions that restrict the passage of large molecules from blood to brain. After intraperitoneal ET injection

in mice, many capillaries are reduced to a thin electron dense band, indicating major changes in endothelial cells (Finnie, 1984b). Following intravenous injection of protoxin or toxin tagged with Green-Fluorescent-Protein (proET-GFP or ET-GFP) in mice, both proET-GFP and ET-GFP can be detected bound onto the luminal surface of the vascular endothelium (Soler-Jover et al., 2007). Studies performed using EBA (endothelial barrier antigen) to assess the integrity of blood–brain barrier in

rats, have revealed severe alteration of the barrier following intraperitoneal administration of proET (Zhu et al., 2001). However, consistent with lack of biological activity of proET, others have found that proET remains bound onto the luminal surface of the vascular endothelium, whereas ET-GFP induces blood–brain barrier disorganization and passes through (Soler-Jover et al., 2007). Therefore, the observation that http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/MLN-2238.html endogenous albumin extravasation occurs after proET application (Zhu et al., 2001) is likely due to the conversion of proET into fully active ET by the plasma and tissue proteases. With this respect, note that a major difference between the above mentioned studies resides in the delay between proET injection and animal sacrifice: 1 h to 14 days post-injection (Zhu et al., 2001) vs. 7 min post-injection (Soler-Jover et al., 2007). This delay may allow significant activation of proET into ET by the body proteases. In mouse, rat or lamb brains, severing of the blood–brain barrier leads to passage of proteins, like serum albumin (endogenous, coupled to Alexa-677, or 125I human serum albumin) as well as Horse Radish Peroxidase or 125I-polyvinyl-pyrrolidone (Buxton, 1976; Finnie et al., 2008, 1999; Griner and Carlson, 1961; Nagahama and Sakurai, 1991). Spreading of ET in neural tissue has been found more diffused than that of albumin, which remains confined around the damaged vessels (Soler-Jover et al., 2007).