We determine 3 miR NAs that could confer a number of the one of a kind phenotypic diversity to ECs and are worthy of additional evaluation. Procedures Human major endothelial cell sources HAEC and HCEC have been harvested from a human aorta and coronary artery taken for the duration of cardiac transplantation of the 7 yr outdated lady. Cells were purified by CD31 mag netic bead separation and con firmed for EC phenotype by DiI Ac LDL staining and CD31 movement cytometry. HDMVEC had been obtained from Cascade Bio logics, Invitrogen cell culture. HBMVECs, HUVECs, HPAECs and HPMVECs were purchased from ScienCell Research Laboratories. Human main endothelial cells culture Human principal endothelial cells have been grown on a 2% gelatin matrix with Endothelial Cell Medium supplemented with ECGS and 5% FBS.
Cells were grown to 75% confluence, at which time, the media was altered and cells have been harvested for RNA 24 hrs later, when confluence was 95%. All cells were concerning passages 3 6 for these experiments. Agilent V3 miRNA array Complete RNA was isolated by miRNeasy kit according to your manufacturers instruc tions. RNA quality was assessed using a Bioanalyser. All samples achieved selleck chemical LY2835219 an RNA integrity amount score better than 9. five. RNA samples had been then run in duplicate on an Agilent V3 miRNA array in accordance on the manufacturers instruc tions in the JHMI Microarray Core Facility. Raw Agilent V3 miRNA data have been preprocessed making use of a modified model of Robust Multi array Evaluation with out background correction, implemented within the AgiMi croRna R bundle. This preprocessing process continues to be proven to have much better precision than the preproces sing process recommended by Agilent.
The array information is submitted to GEO. miRNA RT PCR Total RNA was isolated from human main endothe lial cells, epithelial HPNE cells, and hematologic cells employing TRIzol reagents follow ing companies instructions. RT PCR was carried out with TaqMan microRNA assays selelck kinase inhibitor following the suppliers protocol. The thermal cyclers plan for reverse transcription was sixteen C for 30 minutes, 42 C for 30 minutes and 85 C for 5 minutes followed by 4 C hold. The amplification protocol was 95 C for 10 minutes, 95 C for 15 seconds and anneal/ extend at 60 C for 60 seconds, total cycle quantity is 40. Expression ranges have been normalized to U6 snRNA by Ct techniques.
qPCR For measuring expression in the miR 99b and let 7a pri mary transcripts, cDNAs had been created from complete RNA employing the QuantiTect reverse transcript kit fol lowing the companies protocol. qPCR was per formed utilizing the SYBR Green PCR master mix. Transcript abundance was normalized to b actin expression. Primer sequences for miR 99b cluster have been intended to amplify a area discovered within an exon in the annotated Refseq gene proximal to the miRNAs. Database mining Gene Expression Omnibus were recognized of which 22 were control or untreated samples.

Based on the spe cies, length with the evolution experiments, and circumstances, it can be possible that various estimates from the Markov parameters offered in Table 1 can be obtained depending on the dataset utilized for model coaching, even so, the calculated probabilities appear reasonable in light in the experimental population dynamics. Non adaptive occasions typically have slopes which can be close to zero with the remaining occasions split evenly concerning favourable and detrimental slopes. Adaptive events are predominately weighted in direction of generating measurements with beneficial slopes as is trivially expected. The conduct on the PSM is total most impacted through the state transition properties PAN and PNA as these parameters management how rapidly the model responds to adjustments in chemostat dynamics.
As a way to quantify the error rate with the model extra precisely, the PP242 structure PSM was applied to make hidden state predictions for a collection of chemostat evolution experiments for E. coli, S. cerevisae, and Candida albi cans which have been then in contrast to human annotations. As is often observed in the error prices reported in Table 2, the model achieves a prediction accuracy fee of 85% to 93% to the examined information. Discrepancies amongst the model plus the annotated states usually come up through the inability of your statistical classifier to call positive slopes that don’t meet the statistical threshold for signifi cance, slow adaptive events could consequently be missed by the model. Although these occasions are relatively uncommon and consequently usually do not affect the accuracy with the PSM sub stantially, slow adaptive events could harbor
ages or additional mutations that will shed light about the con dition staying evaluated.
Nonetheless, even in light of this deficiency, the chemostat properties in Table 3 calcu lated utilizing the PSM aren’t considerably various from people obtained from human annotation. On top of that to these continuous culture techniques, the PSM was also ready to accurately annotate VERT information obtained throughout a batch serial transfer experiment. this case, it ought to GDC0941 be noted that extreme noise during the raw FACS information arising from experimental error or con stantly varying selective pressure may render adaptive occasion identification more error prone. Nonetheless, this tendency should not be a problem in most predicaments. Now that adaptive occasions happen to be identified, adap tive mutants need to be isolated in the chemostat popu lation.
Preserved population samples stored at 80 C could possibly be regrown within the selective media, plated, and ana lyzed to find out which clonal isolate contains the adaptive mutation. Considering that any sample can potentially include the mutant of interest, an extra tool primarily based around the emission sequence produced from the statistical classifier along with the hidden state information from the PSM was created to manual sampling efforts in order that the sample together with the highest proportion from the adaptive mutant is identified.

Partial 16 S rDNA sequencing was made use of to recognize the actinobacterial isolates on the genus degree. This positioned the isolates during the genus Streptomyces. According to blastn searches with sixteen S rDNA reference data in the NCBI database grouped the sequences in seven groups, with 16 S rDNA sequence homology to S. atra tus, S. candidus, S. hebeiensis, S. drozdowiczii, S. micro flavus, S. spiroverticillatus, and S. zaomyceticus. Fungi from your mycorrhizosphere are precise in their responses towards the streptomycetes and none in the streptomycete isolates inhibits all fungi Streptomycete fungus co culture bioassays had been carried out to determine the influence in the bacteria on spruce patho genic fungi and on ectomycorrhizal fungi. Various antagonists of Fusarium oxysporum, Heterobasidion abietinum and H. annosum were detected. Instantaneously recognizable was the robust suppres sion of Heterobasidion strains by isolates AcM11 and AcM34, associated with major inhibition of F.
oxysporum. Usually, the two Heterobasidion strains responded relatively differentially to bacterial treatments. When suppression of H. abietinum was marked with iso lates AcM37, AcM12, and AcM08, co cultures of H. annosum with all the very same bacteria led to much less inhibition. In co cultures with AcM01 and AcM35, in contrast, mycelial development of H. abietinum was much less inhibited than that of H. annosum. informative post Development of H. abietinum was promoted by AcM25 though none of the other plant pathogenic fungi showed a favourable response towards the bacteria. Qualitative variations had been observed in between the responses of your examined mycorrhizal fungi towards the streptomycetes. Laccaria bicolor was professional moted by 4 and inhibited by seven bacteria, Amanita muscaria and Piloderma croceum had been inhibited by 9 and three strains, respectively, but not promoted.
Hebe loma cylindrosporum was, usually, inhibited. The bac terial strains AcM1, AcM8, AcM11, AcM34, AcM35 and AcM37 inhibited all symbiotic fungi. Strain distinct patterns of inhibition find out this here in Streptomyces Streptomyces interaction bioassays In order to assess the interactions amongst streptomy cetes along with other bacteria in more detail and also to approach the chemical diversity with the streptomycetes, 5 Strep trates against Gram beneficial and Gram negative bacteria. AcM29 inhibited Gram favourable bacteria as well as other strains suppressed Gram unfavorable bacteria. Once again, the least inhibitory strain was AcM11, which suppressed Escherichia coli only. The growth of none of those bac teria was promoted from the streptomycetes. The inhibitory effect on the supernatants of strains AcM9 and AcM20 was distinctly more powerful than that of the concentrated or ganic extract, indicating the involvement of polar sub stances in antagonism of those strains against bacteria.

Another outlier, Dhaf 1208, was observed to encode a protein simi lar in sequence to thiosulfate reduc tase subunit A, PhsA, of Wolinella succinogenes DSM 1740. Thiosulfate reductase of Salmo nella typhimurium catalyzes dissimilatory anaerobic reduction of thiosulfate to hydrogen sulfide. We observed that thiosulfate from the presence of pyruvate supported a quicker development of D. hafniense DCB 2 than pyruvate alone. During the DCB 2 genome, the putative phsABC operon consists of an extra gene encoding a cytoplasmic chaperone protein. The operon is likely accountable for your observed cell growth on thiosulfate along with the reduction of thiosulfate to sulfide during the presence of pyruvate. In addition to the molybdopterin dependent enzymes that perform the reductive cleavage of sulfur sulfur bonds, a molydbdop terin enzyme for your arsenate reduction was also identi fied. The diversification of molybdoprotein oxidoreductases in D.
hafniense DCB two selleck chemicals may perhaps deliver substantial alternatives for anaerobic energy metabolism. Inorganic electron acceptors On account of their bad solubility in water, metal oxides and hydroxides are challen ging substrates for bacterial respiration. Multiheme c variety cytochromes were shown to mediate dissimilatory reduction of Fe and Mn inside the Gram nega tive bacteria S. oneidensis MR 1 and G. sulfurreducens. The Gram optimistic D. hafniense DCB two incorporates no homolog for the multiheme cytochromes but is cap capable of cutting down Fe for vitality generation. Only three genes potentially encoding c sort cyto chromes that are not a part of regarded enzyme programs had been identified and none of them had a multiheme motif. Total genome transcriptomic research have gener ated a couple of possible candidates to get a dissimilatory Fe reductase.
Amongst them, an operon encoding a molyb dopterin oxidoreductase gene is of particu lar interest given that we uncovered an exceptionally higher degree of expression exclusively induced when Fe was the terminal electron acceptor. The operon appears to incorporate six genes which include two rhodanese OC000459 family genes, a 4Fe 4S binding domain gene, a polysulphide reductase gene, plus a TorD like chaperone gene. In addition, a decacistronic operon encoding sort IV pilus biosynthesis genes was induced 2 three fold. In Geobacter sulfurreducens, kind IV pilus is implicated in mediating electron transfer in the cell surface to insoluble Fe. A mutant defective while in the pilin subunit gene couldn’t lessen insoluble ferric oxide but was even now able to reduce soluble ferric citrate. In our microarray stu dies, ferric citrate and uranyl acetate induced the variety IV pilus biosynthesis operon, but sodium selenate didn’t.

glabripennis 454 based mostly transcriptome assembly were in comparison with GH household assignments from transcriptomes and EST libraries sampled from herbivorous insect guts feeding on a diversity of plants that varied in carbohydrate com place. This was done to determine prospective correlations between carbohydrases associated with insects that feed in related niches. Data were normalized from the total num ber of GH domains detected in every single library in addition to a com positional dissimilarity matrix was constructed based mostly on Euclidean distance. The standardized information were more analyzed employing unconstrained Principal Parts Analysis to plot samples in multidimensional area employing the R statistical bundle together with the vegan library.
PCA selleck chemical EPZ-5676 ordination was picked as the data had been deter mined to become linear by detrended correspondence analysis, To recognize practical similarities in between insects with related feeding habitats, a multivariate comparison of degree four Gene Ontology terms identified from the gut transcriptomes of herbivorous insects was performed. To reduce sampling bias on account of differences in library sizes and assembly metrics, a custom python script was employed to subsample degree four GO assignments from 675 reads and isotigs from just about every library. Data have been log transformed, centered, along with a compos itional dissimilarity matrix of transcriptome libraries was constructed based mostly on Spearman correlation coefficients. Two way clusters have been created with Wards technique applying the R statistical package and the vegan, cluster, gplots, and Biobase libraries.
Phylogenetic analysis Several amino acid sequence alignments selleck were produced working with ClustalW and alignments were manually trimmed and edited utilizing MEGA 5, ProTest was employed to predict optimum evolutionary versions for optimum likelihood analysis using Akaike Data Criteria, Unrooted phylogenetic trees have been constructed making use of Garli, evolution was simulated for 500,000 generations or until probability scores reached convergence and non parametric boot strap analysis was carried out to generate help for branching topology, Absolutely resolved bootstrap consensus trees were compiled making use of Sum Trees model three. 3. one and branch lengths less than 1e eight had been collapsed. II. Identification of really expressed genes while in the A. glabripennis midgut To produce more total length transcripts, improve transcript discovery, and identify really expressed genes within the A. glabripennis midgut, brief paired end reads were integrated to the assembly.

Even further analysis of the BLAST information indicated that 57. 06% from the top rated hits showed sturdy homology with the E worth 1. 0e 45, though 65. 47% of the matched sequences showed moderate homology with all the E value in between 1. 0e 5and 1. 0 e 45, The identity distribution pattern showed that 57. 42% in the sequences had a similarity increased than 80%, whilst 42. 28% showed similarity involving 19% and 80%, Nearly all the annotated sequences corresponded for the acknowledged nucleotide se quences of plant species, with 45. 44%, 39. 47%, 3. 41%, 1. 98% and one. 45% matching by using a. lyrata subsp. Lyrata, A. thaliana, Thellungiella halophila, B. napus and B.
oleracea, respectively, Every one of the top five spe cies with BLAST hits belonged on the Brassicaceae fam ily, implying the sequences from the radish transcripts obtained from the existing review have been assembled and anno tated effectively, read this article GO annotation is definitely an worldwide classification program that could provide standardized vocabulary for assigning functions of the uncharacterized sequences, BLAS T2GO program was made use of to get GO terms for all assem bled unigenes and a total of 52,572 unigenes had been assigned at the least 1 GO phrase. In many cases, many terms had been assigned for the similar transcript, and all of the GO terms had been classi fied into 58 practical groups like biological pro cesses, cellular element, and molecular function at the 2nd degree, Between biological processes, transcript sequences assigned to cellular and metabolic processes had been quite possibly the most abundant.
Inside the molecular perform category, the vast majority of the GO terms were predominantly assigned to binding and catalytic action, For cellular com ponents, these assignments have been largely provided to cell and cell element, The findings unveiled the key GO classifications involved inside the annotated uni genes had been accountable for basic biological regula tion and Vanoxerine metabolism. These final results had been concurrent which has a previously reported review of de novo transcriptome ana lysis in tuberous root of sweet potato, Each and every protein from the COG database is assumed to be evolved from an ancestor, and also the whole database is developed on coding proteins with full genomes too as technique evolution relationships of bacteria, algae and eu karyotes, All round, 19,888 of 73,084 uni genes had been assigned for the COG classification, Considering that a few of these unigenes had been annotated with several COG functions, a complete of 39,787 practical annotations had been made.
Between the 25 COG categories, the cluster for general functions prediction only asso ciated with basic physiological and metabolic functions represented the biggest group, followed by Transcription, Replication, recombination and restore, Submit translational modification, protein turnover, chaperones, and Signal trans duction mechanisms, whereas only handful of unigenes had been assigned to Further cellular structures and Nuclear framework, KEGG pathway database can facilitate to systematically recognize the biological functions of genes with regards to networks, To determine the biological pathways activated in radish roots, the assembled unigenes had been annotated with KEGG Orthology numbers applying BLASTx alignments against KEGG having a minimize off E value of ten 5.

One example is, when the expres sion of a few genes implicated in cholesterol biosyn thesis was decreased 1 d following the last injection of LNA 122i in mice, this result was not observed one wk fol lowing the final injection of LNA 122i, in spite of a stably maintained decrease in plasma cholesterol concentra tions, Conclusion and potential perspectives Inhibition of miRNA 122 in rainbow trout effects in metabolic adjustments that happen to be qualitatively just like changes observed in mammalian versions. Even so, quantitative variations, one example is in postprandial glu cose concentrations, may well signify species particular dif ferences, which appear to become more pronounced in trout compared to prior mammalian research. Mechanistic ally, the enhanced hyperglycemia isn’t going to seem to be related to hepatic glucose supply, favoring the hypothesis of decreased hepatic glucose utilization.
Without a doubt, the sig nature of distinct elements, notably reductions in liver gk expression, likewise as reduction of hepatic FAS protein abundance, are in line with buy OSI-930 the proposed hy pothesis that miRNA 122 regulates glucose homeostasis through modulation of glycolytic flux in the direction of de novo lipo genesis. The regulation of those genes seems to become in dependent of your insulin signaling pathway, and is most likely linked to as of nonetheless unidentified direct targets. Our in silico analysis of predicted miRNA 122 targets in trout uncovered a strong enrichment for cell cycle, proliferation and differentiation processes.
Offered that these miRNA 122 targets are conserved between trout and mice, and that cell cycle regulators are proposed to cross talk with metabolic pathways, genes concerned within this group may well be fantastic candidates for mediating metabolic results. At the same time, this content predicted miRNA 122 targets in trout were enriched for functions in glucose metabolic process, a consequence that may indicate direct regulation of glucose metabolic process by miRNA 122 in trout. Nevertheless, the distinct roles of those genes in trout haven’t been characterized with regard to glucose metabolic process, but existing an interesting avenue for long term examine.
While our study is definitely the to begin with to characterize metabolic effects in the conserved miRNA 122 in a non mammalian vertebrate, potential in depth time program scientific studies are wanted to completely differentiate be tween real species unique differences, and time dependent results of miRNA 122 action, in particular provided the metabolic functions of miRNA 122 are proven to underlie circadian regulation in mammals, Sequences of miRNA 122 were obtained by BLAST evaluation from the zebrafish pre miRNA 122 genome sequence against genome sequences out there while in the ENSEMBL database, Following this approach we retrieved pre miRNA 122 sequences through the African clawed frog, the Carolina anole, the red jungle fowl, the area mouse, the West Indian ocean coelacanth, the Atlantic cod, the green spotted puffer, the fugu, the 3 spined stickleback, the Japanese rice fish and the popular platy, Precisely the same strategy was taken to the elephant shark using the elephant shark genome project, the catfish, employing the catfish genome database, the Atlantic salmon, using the salmon database, the rainbow trout, making use of the INRA rainbow trout genome re sources, as well as gilthead sea bream, employing the INRA Sigenae database, re spectively.

Spatial alteration of gene expression patterns Whereas Microarray and RNA seq evaluation supplies data on quantitative alterations in gene expression amounts across the complete building rudiment, it doesn’t reveal alter ations during the spatial distribution of transcripts or give clues on the certain developmental occasions impacted. We as a result carried out in situ hybridisation on handle and muscle much less mutant limb sections at TS23 for a selected subset of genes. Three from the genes se lected encode components of Wnt signalling pathways regarded to get necessary in skeletal advancement. Cd44, Sfrp2 and Wnt4. Spp1 encodes an ECM protein Osteo pontin and that is a prominent part of mineralised matrices of bone and teeth, Cd44 is a cell surface glycoprotein involved in cell cell interactions, cell adhe sion and migration.
It’s a receptor for hyaluronic acid and can interact with other extracellular proteins, for example osteopontin, collagens and matrix metalloprteinases reviewed in, It is actually a target gene with the Wnt signalling pathway, Cd44 gene expression is down regulated 2. 28 order SB505124 fold in muscle less humeri RNA, The in situ hybridisation analysis reflects this down regulation dramatically with Cd44 transcripts hardly de tectable in either shoulder or elbow joints of muscle much less mutant embryos, when compared with the clear joint line re stricted expression seen in controls, Sfrp2 encodes a secreted protein that acts as being a modulator of the Wnt signalling pathway, specifically throughout usual skeletal patterning in establishing limbs, Regular ex pression at TS23 will be detected within the elbow and shoulder joints.
The degree of up regulation from microarray and RNA seq analysis is two. 62 and 2. 09 fold respectively, This up regulation was reflected within the inten sity of expression seen in mutant sections following in situ hybridisation, Along with the in creased level of expression a transform within the spatial pat tern is additionally evident. In each the elbow along with the shoulder joints expression VX702 is expanded, specifically on the ventral element of your joint along with the staining is unevenly distrib uted, A related expression improve was seen while in the phalangeal and carpal joints with the handplate, in comparison to handle, Wnt4 is usually a signalling ligand within the Wnt signalling pathway. Expression of this gene has previously indicated its position in joint formation in the course of limb advancement, Handle Wnt4 expres sion is observed at a minimal level within the ventral portion in the elbow joint at TS23. there may be also distinct ex pression in the epidermis, as previously detected, In the mutant there’s a large degree of expression inside the elbow joint area.

GSTs also break down a range of compounds generated throughout metabolic process and digestion, this kind of as partially digested lipids, in addition to their in volvement from the detoxification of environmental harmful toxins, plant allelochemicals, and organochlorine and organo than early instar larvae. Our gene examination was based on the transcriptome, and as such, may underrepresent the quantity of detoxifica tion genes observed in the genome. Having said that, we observed similar numbers of genes to those uncovered during the genomes of other bees. Moreover, we utilised a large quantity of in dividuals for our transcriptome, and from across each of the life stages of the bee. As a result, our transcriptome is prob ably a very good library of the detoxification and worry re lated genes uncovered in B. huntii.
The truth that our bees were produced in culture on sugar selleck SCH66336 syrup, as opposed to flower nectar, may have decreased the expression of some detoxification genes, such as continues to be located with honey bees, Having said that, we also fed our bees pollen collected by honey bees, and this possible supplied a source of plant primarily based phenolics and perhaps even traces of pesticides. As a result of importance of detoxification abilities throughout a bumble bees lifestyle, a single could count on B. huntii to have a genome rich in detoxification genes. however, like other bees such as a. mellifera, B. terrestris and B. impa tiens, we uncovered B. huntii to get rather handful of P450s, GSTs and carboxylesterases esterases, as compared to D. melanogaster. One example is, the number of P450 CYP4 genes is quite high in D. melanogaster, relative to what we found in B. huntii.
Bombus huntii also has fewer epsilon GSTs genes in comparison to D. melanogaster, though we found a somewhat greater quantity of sigma GSTs in B. huntii and a. mellifera. Epsilon GSTs are identified to be involved in DDT resistance as well as the detoxification of xenobiotics. The large number of epsilon GSTs in D. melanogaster should reflect both a better evolutionary selleck chemicals PI3K Inhibitors diversification of these genes while in the fruit fly, a reduction of some genes in the bees, or maybe a combination of the two. In any situation, this could arise if flies tend to have a higher exposure to environ psychological toxins than do the bees. Sigma GSTs are associ ated with all the detoxification of lipid peroxidation merchandise, and present safety from oxidants professional duced by the aerobic metabolic process of honey, pollen and nectar from the bees, So, the slightly better variety of sigma GSTs in bees also seems to reflect their eco logical niche. We discovered right here the very low variety of detoxification genes discovered inside the A. mellifera genome is actually a phenomenon frequent to a lot of bees. We hypothesize that this phenomenon may have arose as a result of the symbiotic partnership involving bees and flowering plants.

GSTs also break down a range of compounds developed through metabolism and digestion, such as partially digested lipids, furthermore to their in volvement in the detoxification of environmental harmful toxins, plant allelochemicals, and organochlorine and organo than early instar larvae. Our gene analysis was primarily based on the transcriptome, and as this kind of, may possibly underrepresent the number of detoxifica tion genes located within the genome. Having said that, we observed equivalent numbers of genes to people observed while in the genomes of other bees. On top of that, we used a considerable variety of in dividuals for our transcriptome, and from across each of the life phases from the bee. Hence, our transcriptome is prob ably a fantastic library from the detoxification and pressure re lated genes identified in B. huntii.
The fact that our bees have been developed in culture on sugar order erismodegib syrup, in lieu of flower nectar, might have diminished the expression of some detoxification genes, this kind of as continues to be observed with honey bees, Nevertheless, we also fed our bees pollen collected by honey bees, and this most likely provided a source of plant primarily based phenolics and probably even traces of pesticides. Due to the importance of detoxification capabilities for the duration of a bumble bees existence, one may well count on B. huntii to have a genome wealthy in detoxification genes. nonetheless, like other bees such being a. mellifera, B. terrestris and B. impa tiens, we uncovered B. huntii to get rather few P450s, GSTs and carboxylesterases esterases, as in contrast to D. melanogaster. By way of example, the quantity of P450 CYP4 genes is really large in D. melanogaster, relative to what we located in B. huntii.
Bombus huntii also has fewer epsilon GSTs genes in comparison to D. melanogaster, whilst we uncovered a slightly increased quantity of sigma GSTs in B. huntii plus a. mellifera. Epsilon GSTs are identified to be concerned in DDT resistance as well as detoxification of xenobiotics. The higher amount of epsilon GSTs in D. melanogaster will have to reflect either a higher evolutionary recommended reading diversification of those genes in the fruit fly, a reduction of some genes while in the bees, or a mixture of each. In any case, this might come up if flies are likely to possess a greater publicity to environ mental harmful toxins than do the bees. Sigma GSTs are associ ated with the detoxification of lipid peroxidation products, and give protection from oxidants professional duced from the aerobic metabolism of honey, pollen and nectar while in the bees, So, the slightly higher quantity of sigma GSTs in bees also appears to reflect their eco logical niche. We uncovered right here that the minimal number of detoxification genes identified while in the A. mellifera genome is often a phenomenon widespread to many bees. We hypothesize that this phenomenon may have arose as a result of the symbiotic partnership among bees and flowering plants.